Fig. 1

Schematic representation of the experimental design for acute and chronic TBI models with P Pan-Probiotic (PP) treatment. (a) Acute TBI Model: Mice received either water (VH) or a Pan-Probiotic (PP) cocktail containing Lactobacillus plantarum, L. reuteri, L. helveticus, L. fermentum, L. rhamnosus, L. gasseri, and L. casei via drinking water for 7 weeks prior to TBI induction. Acute assessments were performed 3 days post-injury (dpi), including microbiome sequencing, gut pathology analysis, histological examination, and blood collection. (b) Chronic TBI Model: Mice were pretreated with either water (VH) or the PP cocktail for 2 weeks before TBI or sham surgery. Post-TBI, treatment continued for 5 weeks, and outcomes were evaluated at multiple time points (7, 14, 21, and 35 dpi). Rotarod testing (R) was conducted to assess motor function, and behavioral tests, including the Elevated Plus Maze and Forced Swim Test, were performed to evaluate anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors. Additional analyses included microbiome sequencing, gut pathology, blood collection, histology, and RNAscope imaging at 35 dpi